雅思閱讀V42 S2電擊試驗材料
來源：
小編： 174雅思閱讀V42 S2電擊試驗相關材料
2005-2-16 來源： 環球教育論壇
v42s2電擊試驗這篇文章非常難懂，幸好有兩位朋友熱情相助，分別從《參考消息》和這個實驗的創始人的個人網站找到了相關材料，發給無憂雅思網友共享。
Milgram's Study of Obedience
Aims: Milgram was sceptical about the idea that only strict authoritive figures could afflict the horrors seen during World War Two by the Nazis. He wanted to prove this view held by the general public wrong, by doing an obedience experiment to show that ordinary people of the general public could inflict harm on other human beings.
Procedures: 40 males aged 20-50 were recruited through a newspaper advertisement, and paid $4.50 to participate in a study regarding 'memory'. Participants were introduced to a confederate, Mr. Wallice. Lots were drawn to decide who would be the teacher and who would be the learner (the participant always became the teacher). The learner was strapped into a chair with electrodes on his hands.
The participant was to ask the learner questions, each incorrect answer was punished with an electric shock, beginning at 15 volts (very mild), going up by 15 volts for every incorrect answer up to 450 volts (danger - severe shock, xxx). The learner stated he had a mild heart condition.
Shocks were received in silence up until 300 volts, Mr. Wallice then complained of having heart trouble and pounded on the door to be let out. He then refused to answer any more questions. After a short while he became silent and was presumed unconscious or dead.
If the teachers questioned the experimenter (also a confederate), they were presented with four orders:
1. Please continue,
2. The experiment requires you to continue,
3. It is essential that you continue,
4. You have no choice, you must continue.
If the participant still refused to administer any more shocks, they were allowed to stop.
Unknown to the participant, the experimenter was an actor, as was the learner. The lots drawn to distinguish roles were fixed, and the electric shocks WERE NOT REAL.
Findings: Before the experiment began a class of psychology students were asked to estimate the percentage of participants who would continue giving shocks up to 450v, they estimated only 3%.
No one actually stopped below the level of intense shock. 22.5% stopped at 315v (extremely intense), 65% continued up until the maximum shock of 450v.
Participants showed extreme tension, biting fingernails, sweating, trembling, stuttering, groaning and three of the participants actually had full blown seizures.
During debriefing the participants completed a follow up questionnaire. 84% of them felt glad that they participated, 74% learnt something of personal importance.
Conclusion: Participants showed obedience to unjust authority beyond what anyone imagined. It showed how ordinary people could mindlessly obey orders to hurt another human being. The strengths of obedience and the tension created by social pressure were surprising.
Evaluation: It was UNETHICAL. Participants were recieved into believing it was a memory task, that the shocks were real and they did not have the right to withdraw or to give informed consent. They were also subjected to psychological harm. Milgram counteracts this argument by saying they were thoroughly debriefed and that from the questionnaire, they had been happy to have participated.
It lacked INTERNAL VALIDITY. The participants could not have belived the shocks were real. However Milgram states that from the results of the questionnaire, most participants believed in the setup.
It lacked EXTERNAL VALIDITY. This situation was unlikely to occur in everyday life therefore the participants acted in a different way to how they would usually act and the results could not be generalised to the real world. Though Milgram states that the participants clearly believed the situation was real (shown in video footage of the experiment) so the experiment had MUNDANE REALISM.
The participants could have been affected by OTHER FACTORS such as the prestigous environment.
There is vast CROSS-CULTURAL SUPPORT from further similar studies.
Other Points: Variations of this study has been carried out to investigate the effects of:
Environment,
Proximity to the victim,
Authoritive figures,
Social support and
Other factors have on the extent of obedience.
參考中文：
服從是指按照他人命令去行動的行為，也是人際互動的基本方式之一。但是，服從與從眾有著本質的不同。在從眾情況下的個體，雖然沒有按照自己的本愿去行動，但卻是自愿的；而在服從情況下的個體，則完全是在不自愿的情況下，應別人的要求去行動的。服從包括兩個方面：對權威人物命令的服從，在有一定組織的群體規范影響下的服從。
關于服從的經典研究是由社會心理學家米爾格拉姆（S.Milgram）于1963年在美國的耶魯大學進行的。這項研究是社會心理學領域中最具影響力的實驗之一。米爾格拉姆通過公開招聘的方式，以每小時付給4.5美元的價格招聘到40名自愿參加者，他們包括教師、工程師、郵局職員、工人和商人，平均年齡在25~50歲之間。
實驗者告訴被試，他們將參加一項研究懲罰對學生學習的影響的實驗，要求兩人一組，用抽簽的方式決定其中一人當學生，另一人當教師。教師的任務是朗讀配對的關聯詞，學生的任務是記住這些詞，然后教師呈現這些詞，讓學生在給定的四個詞中選擇一個正確的答案，如果選錯了，教師就通過按電鈕給學生以電擊作為懲罰。
事實上，研究者事先已經安排了每次抽簽的結果總是真正的被試作為教師，而作為學生的卻是實驗者助手。實驗過程中，當學生的假被試和當教師的真被試被分別安排在不同的房間里，學生的胳膊上綁上電極，被綁在椅子上，以便在記憶詞匯發生錯誤時被教師懲罰。
教師與學生之間是通過聲訊的方式進行聯系的。教師的操作臺上每個電鍵都標明了電擊的嚴重程度，從15V的輕微，到450V的致命。這些電擊實際上都是假的，但為了使教師相信整個實驗，首先讓其接受一次強度為45V的電擊作為體驗。
在實驗中，每當學生出錯，主試就命令教師施與電擊，而且要逐步加大強度，隨著電擊強度的增加，學生也由呻吟、叫喊、怒罵逐漸到哀求、討饒、踢打，最后昏厥。若被試表現猶豫，主試則嚴厲地督促他們繼續實驗，并說一切后果由實驗者承擔。
結果顯示，在整個實驗過程中，當電壓增加到300V時，只有5人拒絕再提高電壓；當電壓增加到315V時，又有4人拒絕服從命令；電壓為330V時，又有2人表示拒絕；之后，在電壓達到345V、360V、375V時，又各有1人拒絕服從命令。共有14人（占被試的35%）做出了種種反抗，拒絕執行主試的命令。另外26名被試（占被試的65%）則服從了實驗者的命令，堅持到實驗的最后，盡管他們表現出了不同程度的緊張和焦慮。
影響服從的因素很多，概括起來主要有三個方面：
（1）命令發出者。他的權威性，他對執行命令者是否關心、愛護，他是否監督命令執行的全過程等，都會影響到服從。
（2）命令的執行者。他的道德水平、人格特征以及文化背景等也都會影響到他對命令的服從。
（3）情境因素。例如是否有人支持自己的拒絕行為，周圍人的榜樣行為怎樣，獎勵結構的設置情況，自己拒絕或執行命令的行為反饋情況怎樣等，也會影響到個體的服從行為。
社會心理學家認為個體之所以會有服從行為，主要的原因是兩個。
一、合法權力。我們通常認為，在一定情境下，社會賦予了某些社會角色更大的權力，而自己有服從他們的義務。比如學生應該服從教師，病人應該服從醫生等，在實驗室中，被試就應該服從主試，特別是陌生的情境更加強了被試服從主試命令的準備狀態。
二、責任轉移。一般情況下，我們對于自己的行為都有自己的責任意識，如果我們認為造成某種行為的責任不在自己，特別是當有指揮官主動承擔責任時，我們就會認為該行為的主導者不在自己，而在指揮官。因此，我們就不需要對此行為負責，于是發生了責任轉移，使得人們不考慮自己的行為后果。
